Abstract

Background: Exclusive breastfeeding is worldly, the preferred choice of feeding infants. WHO and UNICEF encourage it for the first 6 months of life and as long as practicable up to two years or more alongside other weaning foods. In a previous study knowledge level of participants (35.7%) on the importance of Exclusive Breast Feeding (EBF) was relatively high, yet, only about half of them (17.9%) practised EBF. This suggest that knowledge alone is not enough to achieve EBF as recommended by WHO and UNICEF. Purpose of study: The purpose of this research was to investigate factors influencing practices of EBF (incentives/reinforcers) in addition to attitude, perception and knowledge level, employing social cognitive theory. Methodology: The design employed was cross sectional study. Results: Most of them (84.1%) were self-employed. About (71%) were married. Most participants (80.7%) indicated that exclusive breastfeeding can be practiced by everybody. About (51.2%) were in support that breastfeeding should expand over at least 2 years. Conclusion: In addition to giving mothers knowledge on EBF, reinforcers, incentives and practices that enhances EBF should be used to ensure its practice.

Keywords:Exclusive Breast Feeding; Nursing Mothers; Infants; Ghana

Introduction

Even though WHO and UNICEF [1,2] advise that mothers ought to practice exclusive breastfeed for 6 months and beyond, the world is still struggling to adhere to this advice and much is left to be desired.Inano et al. found in their study that this practice has left much to be desired because of myriad of challenges its practice faces [3].

Breast milk has vital nutrients that a new-born needs for adequate and healthy growth. Exclusively breastfed children fall sick less often and their mother’s benefit from extended lactation amenorrhea. Despite this known fact, the practice has not received the desired attention and there exist paucity of literature in the context of Ghana. Preceding research on this topic emphasized on knowledge and attitude of mothers toward exclusive breastfeeding without looking at how women practice Exclusive Breast Feeding (EBF) [1]. Another previous study recruited only first-time mothers [4]. What remains open and unanswered among other deficiencies in literature is that the application of theoretical frameworks that gives research scholarly footing is lacking on this subject matter. This study therefore will fill this gap.

Background to the Study

Breastfeeding is worldly considered the best choice of infants feeding. Breastfeeding is defined as giving only breast milk without any meals or drinks for 6 months [5]. Exclusive breastfeeding is adequate and contains the right amounts of various nutrients [6]. Research revealed that even undernourished mothers has good milk for feeding [7]. Though their milk production can be improved with good nutrition [8]. The authors of this research therefore, agrees with WHO and UNICEF that all mothers should practice EBF, since even undernourished mothers can produce enough breast milk for their babies.

Out of the  6.9 million deaths of children less than five years in 2017,  about 1 million of them could have been spared of their lives through practices of EBF [9]. Adequate understanding about practices of exclusive breastfeeding in addition to knowledge is said to be the panacea to solving this problem [10]. In order to emphasize this point, Duan et al. [11]  in  a  study  on knowledge of the importance of EBF for the first 6 months, pointed that the knowledge level of participants was (35.7%), which was seen to be relatively high meanwhile only about half of the participants (17.9%) practised EBF. This emphasizes the point that knowledge alone is not enough to achieve EBF.

Similar studies [12-14] have been conducted in Ghana concerning  knowledge and attitude and not much is known about other predictors of EBF  in northern Ghana. Nukpezah et al, (2018) also conducted similar research without looking at the factors influencing the practices of exclusive breastfeeding [4]. Though there are worldwide and Africa-specific statistics on factors influencing exclusive breastfeeding there is limited published literature particularly on practices in the context of Ghana, specifically in the northern region. Statistics from the Ghana Health Service and USAID shows exclusive breastfeeding at six months stands around 43% while early initiation of breastfeeding hovers around 50%. Though 98% of women are reported to have ever fed their babies, proper infant feeding and EBF are not largely followed [15]. To lend credence to this, there was a drop in EBF from 63% in 2008. These factors causing these therefore, need to be investigated.

Theoretical framework/Theoretical perspective

In considering a theoretical framework for studying exclusive breastfeeding practices among mothers in the Tamale Metropolis, the social cognitive theory is apt. This theory underpins the fact that the role of subjective assumptions and believes or expectations held by the subject influences’ behavior. Behavior, in this regard, is a function of the value an individual places on the reward that the behavior will bring. In other words, if an individual thinks that a certain reward or benefit is worth a certain kind of behavior then they will go ahead and put up that behavior. This is theorized as value expectancy theory. Therefore, behavior is predicted by reinforcers that influence expectations in a particular context or situation.

Social cognitive theory looks at behavior as a product of the reciprocal interaction of three factors; environment, cognitive and behavioral. This creates the opportunity for people to either put a limit on their development or influence the achievement of their destiny. Hence the idea of human functioning neither expose human to become powerless beings influenced by the environmental factors or makes human beings agents of becoming whatever they choose to become. Rather the environment and human beings are reciprocal predictors of one another [16].

Bandura’s theory asserts that expectancies and incentives predict behavior.  For the purpose of this study, expectancies will be divided into three:(a) Expectancies about environmental cues, the believe that one thing in the environment leads to another (b) Expectancies about either the positive or negative rewards about one’s behavior (outcome expectancy) and (c) expectancies about one’s ability to carry out the behavior that will cause the desired outcome (self-efficacy). The second factor that predicts behavior is incentives, that is the value one places on the outcome of a behavior in other words behavior is determined by reinforcements, depending on how the reinforcement are interpreted by the individual.  Hence people who esteem the outcomes of certain behaviors (incentives), in this case EBF, will attempt to practice it if they believe that (a) their current breastfeeding mode if not EBF, pose threats to their children’s health, and to their economic burden.  (b) adopting behavioral changes (EBF) will reduce threats that other forms of breastfeeding other than EBF can cause; and (c) they are capable or competent in adopting the new behaviors (Efficacy expectations), that is breastfeeding.

Also, social cognitive theory has been used in a wide range of social behavior in human endeavors which include issues in social deviance, competition, and sex roles. According to Rotter (1954), there are four variables embedded in social cognitive theory which should be considered when employing this theory in a study; psychological situations, expectancies, behavior and reinforcement. Following this explanation, behavior is defined as; “in any psychological situation the likelihood for a behavior to take place is the result of the anticipation that the behavior will result in a lead-up to a particular reinforcement in that context and the value placed on that reinforcement by the individual”. 

The perceived amount of surety/chance that association exist between behavior and reward is expectancy in this definition. The use of social cognitive theory in this study of exclusive breastfeeding, the variables identified by Rotter (1954), in the theory are:

1. Exclusive Breastfeeding is the desired behavior
2. The expectancy of benefits determining a behavior or not predicted by a behavior is the locus of control.
3. Reinforcements are the benefits from exclusive breastfeeding and the value/worth placed on these rewards. And
4. The health center and society serve as the psychological situation which serve to provide the rewards for engaging or practicing exclusive breastfeeding. With these specific variables, the formula for behavior which was formulated by Rotter (1975) would be defined as: For potential exclusive breastfeeding practices/behavior to occur within the society/health centers, it is the result of the anticipation that this activity (breastfeeding) will result in benefits and the value that these women place on these benefits. Further, the product of locus of control and   interpersonal trust must be taking into consideration alongside the expectancy of getting benefits from behaviors (Rotter, 1967). The last but not least, the following variables among others; culture, age, work, number of children etc. are factors that may correlate to the extent of compliance to EBF, similar to what exist in other places. Drawing conclusions from these, the following proposition support and underpins the rationale for the design of this study. If breastfeeding mothers believe:

(a)   Practicing exclusive breastfeeding will lead to rewards (locus of control),

(b)  Others can be relied upon to follow through on their promises

(interpersonal trust),

(c)   The rewards for exclusive breastfeeding are worthwhile (high value placed on reward), and

(d)  The rewards are visible and available in the society/health centers they visit; then they will attain high levels of exclusive breastfeeding practices.

Methods

Research Design: Cross sectional study design was employed in this study.

Study Setting: The Tamale Reproductive and Child Health Clinic was the study setting. The facility runs only out-patient services which include Post-natal and Antenatal services. The facility provides only ANC and PNC services and functions on only week days from 8:00am to 5:00pm. It has a staff capacity of 18 health workers (7 community health nurses, 8 midwives and two physician assistants).

Study Population: The study population comprised women in their fertile age and the target group was nursing mothers with infants between 3 months to 9 months of age who receive health care services at RCH in the Tamale metropolis. This target group was selected because most infants less than 12 months are exclusively breastfed [17]. 

Sampling Size

The Cochran (1977) formula was used: N = (Zα/2)2 P (1-P)/d2.

Where:

N = the sample size.

Zα/2 = desired level of confidence.

P = assumed breastfeeding rate in northern Ghana

Assumption;

1. Assumed breastfeeding rate is 9.7% (Ghana Health Service (GHS), 2018). Similar studies such as [2,3,19] used the sampling with assumed breastfeeding rate of 9.7%? 
2. The margin of error d = 5% is allowed.
3. Confidence interval of 95% is assured (Zα/2 = 1.96).

By computation:       

Sampling Techniques

The sampling technique employed was probability sampling techniques because of its advantage of drawing inferences from findings of the sample size to the population of the sample size [18]. The sampling frame was a paired list of mothers and their infants’ who were booked with identification numbers for routine care. Their identification numbers were placed into a bag, shuffled and each was drawn and counted without replacing it. The process continued till the sample size of 133 (100%) was attained.

Data Collection

According to Teddlie & yu, [19], the use of questionnaire has advantage of privacy and mitigate against response bias which other data collection instruments do not do as much. This informed the decision to use questionnaire instrument. The items on the questionnaire were divided into four parts: Knowledge, attitude, perception of exclusive breastfeeding and factors influencing breastfeeding practices. The data was collected at the child welfare clinic, from 18^th to 21^st July, 2022.  The mothers were given an average time of 30-mins each to answer the questionnaires. The data collection instrument (questionnaire) was in English language. For participants who could not read/understand some of the questions, the question items were read and explained to them.

Reliability and Validity

The questionnaire was developed through literature review and using similar studies to determine the face and content validity. It was given to other peers who are experts in quantitative studies for their input and fine tuning of the tool.

Data Processing and Analysis

Data analysis was done using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Results were presented in the form tables and frequencies and reported using, tables and frequencies. The socio-demographic characteristics, attitude, practices and Knowledge of participants about EBF and factors influencing their practices were all displayed using tables and figures. Further inferences were made by displaying of bar graphs and other inferential statistical analysis done on the Knowledge, perceptions and the practices of EBF with P value set at 0.05.

Ethical Consideration

The researchers sort permission from the ethical review board of a Teaching Hospital, which approved the study with approval number, TTH/R&D/SR/122. A consent form was given to the participants to consent after its content was explained to them. Study objectives, benefits and risks were made known to them. Confidentiality and privacy of participants were maintained throughout the study.

Limitations of the study

This study like any other research study has its limitations. The first is the scope is too small and findings might not be able to reflect the general world population because of differences in many factors. Financial constraints were also a limitation that led to the choice of only one facility for the study instead of many or even cover the whole country where the study was done. In addition, quantitative studies usually lack the kind of detail associated with qualitative studies and this study was not left out since it is a quantitative study.

Presentation of Results

The study identified that most breastfeeding mothers are between the ages of 26-35 years (45.5%), Muslims (84.8%) and have at least secondary education (54.5%). There were 81.4% of the respondents who reside in the urban setting and gave birth to their youngest child in Hospitals/Health centers (95.2%). All these are displayed in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographic Information on various variables is illustrated.

Most of the respondents were married (94.5%) and have at least one child. In terms of parity, those who had children four and above were more (33.1%) than other groups, the next highest group were those with two children (27.6%), followed by those with three children at 20% and those with a child were the least with 19.3% as shown in the bar graph. These are all illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Bar graph illustrating some other Demographic Information of participants.

Table 2: Knowledge and attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding.

Table 2, presents the knowledge of respondents on exclusive breastfeeding. It was found that exclusive breastfeeding involves feeding baby with only breastmilk (86.9%). Timing for breastfed exclusively after birth was mentioned as 6 months (89.7%) and their source of information about the length of recommended breastfeeding was from doctors, nurses, and midwives (89.0%). The appropriate age to start giving solid foods to a baby is above six (6) months (96.6%). The mothers do not intend to give baby formula milk in the first 6 months of life (84.1%) and also think that breastmilk can be expressed, stored, and used later when mother is not around (57.2%). The above percentages show that respondent’s knowledge on EBF was very good and in some aspects excellent.

The attitude towards breastfeeding was found to be good as the mothers agreed (43.4%) and strongly agreed (51.7%) respectively that breastfeeding should be continued up to 2 years even though the baby has received solid food. This sums up to a percentage of (95.1%) of mothers who agree to this view. This good or positive attitude may be as a result of the knowledge acquired during ANC education mothers received regarding the benefits of exclusive breastfeeding to the infant.  They knew that mothers may mix breastfeeding and formula feeding once baby starts taking solid food (93.8%), and also knew benefits such as breastfeeding reduces the risk of lung infection among babies (96.5%), babies who receives breast milk is less prone to get diarrhea (90.4%), breastfeeding causes good development of baby’s teeth and gum (97.2%), breastfeeding is beneficial for the mother (91.7%), and exclusive breastfeeding is beneficial in birth spacing (82.8%).

As shown in Figure 2, Mothers were found to be cleaning their nipple as much as possible (95.2%), and as a result mother and/or their baby have no medical complications as a result of infection and also, there was no inhibited breastfeeding initiation (93.1%). It was the decision of mothers to breastfeed their child (84.1%) and therefore initiated breastfeeding immediately after birth (86.9%). These percentages of various variable are clearly shown in figure 2 or the bar graph above.

Figure 2: practices of exclusive breastfeeding.

It was identified that a considerable number of parents do not know that breast milk contains water (44.8%). This is an interesting finding and confirms why most mothers in Ghana especially in the north will insist on giving water to their babies as soon as after birth with the erroneous perception that the child will die of thirst if water is not given. These women therefore, needs education to convince them that breastmilk contains water so that the fight achieve exclusive breastfeeding could be achieved.  In addition, the study found out that most mothers knew that supplementary foods should be introduced in addition to breastfeeding later after 6 months of age (98.6%). There were 85.5% of the mothers who agree that exclusively breastfed babies have less gastrointestinal and respiratory illness such as infection and asthma than those who are not breastfed. These are all clearly displayed in Table 3.

Table 3: Perception and decision to stop exclusive breastfeeding.