ARMP Journal

1.       Introduction 

My ideas are based on chancing on discover the phase transition in ice crystallizing in liquid nitrogen as a Cambridge undergraduate in 1967. Recent reports of iceXIc [1], corroborating it countered publishers’ and reviewers’ scepticism sufficiently to enable Melrose Press to publish Science Uncoiled [2]. 

Contrary to Pauling’s residual entropy [3], the water molecules in cubic ice are orderly at low temperatures. A phase transition at 72K accommodates their irregular tetrahedral shape, emitting latent energy as ~4µ infrared laser light, ice- light. Polarized by multiple reflection in cloud and surface ice, it activated nucleotides now known to have existed [4] on the surface of Darwin’s warm tropical waters [5], creating a DNA noodle soup. 

(Figure 1) shows H₂O molecule electrets aligned in cubic ice, 2D and 3D representations of the phase transition, its role in creating DNA in the primordial soup, tRNA’s H-bond-lined hole and the ratchet pump mechanism. 

Ices obey the ice rule, water molecules have four neighbours connected by either O···H ̶ O or O ̶ H···O at random. Some variants are proton ordered at extreme temperatures and pressures, defying Pauling’s residual entropy. Misinterpreting instructions for an experiment designed to verify the Clausius Clapeyron relation for nitrogen [6], I immersed the He thermometer and attributed the resulting hysteresis to a phase change in ice crystallizing on its surface. Ice XIc is the only form exhibiting proton-ordered crystals at ambient pressure, (Figure 1). 

Mercury’s poles and Jupiter’s moons are sufficiently cold to liquefy N₂  [7]. Primordial Earth’s O₂-free atmosphere enabled ice XIc crystallizing in polar liquid nitrogen to coexist with warm tropical waters. ~4µ laser light is reflected when attempting to deice aircraft wings [8]. Ice in clouds and on Earth’s surface reflected and polarized ice-light. Water absorbs it, only such surface-resident molecules as deoxyribonucleotides with matching chirality were activated  

The DNA they created accumulated, some formed tRNA analogues, transport DNAs sharing their H-bond-line hole shown in the X-ray diffraction image of tRNAPhe [9]. Reported DNA particles around the entry point of sperm to ovum supported my proposal that tDNAs are inherited independent of nuclear chromosomes. Differentiation DNAs, dDNAs [2] selecting tDNAs determine cell diet are analogous to mRNAs selecting tRNAs for protein synthesis, they constitute a simpler basis for cancer prevention than nuclear genetics. Originally, tDNAs embedded in the lightning-charged membranes of coacervates [10] afforded polarized pores. Ice-light depolarized them, creating an electric field which propelled ionic complexes through, creating a concentrated chemical mixture within, (Figure 2).

DNA is generally assumed to adopt the B-helical conformation Watson and Crick [11] deduced from Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray diffraction images and to form NCPs. Reducing the instruction sets of an IBM-360 and Commodore PET computer to nine launched my study of chromatin structure. Linus Pauling’s anti-parallel β-pleated sheet proteins [3] bind uncoiled B-helical DNA neatly, (Figure 3).

Minions comprise 189 anti-parallel β-pleated sheet oligopeptide hairpin units with alternate neutral/basic residues, A | L | I | V / K | R. P creates a 17 ̊ angle between adjacent units, they bind 9-base-pair sections of DNA retaining B-helical spacing and overlap, siRNAs [12] are analogous. Nine 21-unit coils (degrading to NCPs on extraction) complete a minion, signifying mind and subservience. 

21-unit coils readily degrade to nucleosome core particles on extraction, Minions replicate 1,701 base-pairs without the mutations implicit in uncoiling or recoiling and pack chromosomes neatly. Bacterial protein gramicidin S [13] has D-phenylalanine residues, F analogous to base-pairs. Amino acids A, L, I & V fitting bases C, G, A & T, mnemonic A LIVe CiGAreTte, conserves critical sequences. 

Amino-acids A, L, I and V bind specifically to bases cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine, C, G, A and T (mnemonic A LIVE CiGAreTte), conserving critical sequences. Three sets of H-bonds inter-connect minion components. The default settings and oscillations of those between K | R ω-amines and phosphates account for minions’ emergent functions as biological clocks, chips in the brain and nuclear fusion reactors. 

Minions enable error-free replication of 1,701 DNA base-pairs without uncoiling and recoiling. They govern nine biochemical pathways. The 63 DNA triplets per coil corelate with the I Ching’s [14] 64 components, it’s prime factors the 7 days/week and using base-60 in time-keeping. Demonstrating NCPs are preparative artefacts would help. 

I propose transport DNAs, tDNAs sharing the H-bond lined hole of analogous tRNAs, were the first bioactive molecules. Embedding in lightning charged coacervate membranes during a primordial ice age, they served as membrane pumps, concentrating nutrients. Those exchanging Na⁺ for K⁺ replace lightning, maintaining membrane potential and polarising tDNAs’ H-bonds. 

Adenyl cyclase releasing ATP’s phosphodiester bond energy replaces the original ice-light, depolarising them. The resulting electric field imports ionic carrier-substrate complexes. This paper focusses on nine independent pathways controlling: motility, sensitivity, excretion, respiration, growth, rigidity, assimilation, reproduction and osmoregulation.

Differentiation DNAs, dDNAs coordinate ~2,000 tDNAs of 64 types resident in all cell membranes, determining cell diet. dDNAs and tDNAs are discarded during extraction so they’ve eluded detection. Available substrates, not enzyme catalysis, distinguishes tissues. Dietary sufficiency of trace elements: Se, Ag, Zn, F, Cu, I, Mn, K and Ca tDNAs deploy ensures health and longevity.

(Figure 5) shows Mendeleev’s periodic table, it highlights elements essential, toxic and unused in biology. Science Uncoiled, Melrose Press or at www.scienceuncoiled.co.uk affords background information.

2.       Motility 

Acidity inhibiting liver glutathione oxidation to sulphite, SO₃ ⁼can cause cramps. SO₃ ⁼ exchanges Mg⁺⁺/Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺ catalyzes release of ATP’s P ~ P bond energy as λ ~ 4 μ photons. Resonant cavities for λ couple chemical to mechanical energy more efficiently than thermodynamics. 

Centrioles firing on nine cylinders pass energy via the intertwined α-helical H-bonds of spindle fibers to chloroplasts. Protons propelled along minion tunnels generate alternating magnetic fields. Chromosome length determines their frequency; it repels daughter chromosomes at cell division. The standard version involving centrioles pulling chromosomes apart contravenes Newton’s 3rd law, equal and opposite. 

Sarcomeres of striated muscle contract to form ½-wave resonant cavities for λ, (Figure 6). It’s more efficient than Huxley’s cross-bridges between actin and myosin randomly making and breaking [15]. Chloroplast grana form resonant cavities for sunlight wavelength, the cytochrome chain splits them to ~4µ, photo- phosphorylating ATP. 

3. Sensitivity

tDNAs’ high-voltage pores stabilize the 4-/6-member rings catechol amines adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine form around Na⁺/K⁺ exchanging 3Na⁺/2K⁺ at synapses change cell charge and metabolic rate. Na⁺ resembles water, forming such large hydrates as Na⁺.28H₂O, rendering the cell sap viscous and slowing cell chemistry. K⁺ substitution binds less water and increases metabolic rate, explaining the fight or flight reflex, (Figure 7). 

According to the neural network model [16], differentiated brain areas use different neuro-transmitters, explaining why L-dopa supplementation prevents Parkinson’s disease [17] Closing synapses enables pain transmission but minions use them as wave-guides like fiber optic cables. 

Substituting morphine or codeine forms larger complexes which block tDNAs, preventing pain transmission. Pain sensitivity increases when more tDNAs are enrolled to compensate, explaining drug addiction [18].

4.       Excretion

Aldosterone, angiotensin, rennin, histamine and aspirin mediate salt transport, controlling acidity and ionic strength. Angiotensin delivers Mn, its chlorides: MnCl₃⁻, MnCl₄⁼ and MnCl₆⁴⁻ excrete salt in urine, sweat and tears. The chloride shift [19] exchanges HCO₃^-/Cl^- and Zn cofactors carbonic anhydrase control pH:

CO₂ + H₂O ↔ HCO₃^- + H⁺.

5.       Respiration 

Breathing exchanges CO₂ for O₂, erythrocyte haemoglobin distributes O₂. Biological membranes are impermeable to its usual hydrated state: O₂.H₂O. The thyroid glands issue iodine in thyroxine, at target tissues a proton releases purple metallic iodonium, I⁺, carrier for O₂.H₂O, (Figure 8).  

The I⁺[O₂.H₂O]₂ complex enables O₂ transport and iodine is recycled as iodide, I^-. Littoral seaweeds deploy the complex to manage tidal changes in [O₂], their purple and yellow colors reflect those of I⁺ and I^-. Iodine deficiency causes goiter. I₊[O₂.H₂O]₂ adding water to the aqueous humor causes exophthalmos.

A mutant tDNA disrupting nerve cell oxygenation explains bipolar disorder [20], excess and deficient O₂ cause mania and depression respectively. Li⁺, diagonally related to I⁺ in the periodic table, stabilizes O₂ transport and controls mood swings. Excess Li⁺ can cause kidney failure. 

1 in 7 siblings inherits bipolar disorder, implying seven types of tDNA are involved with respiration. It confirms the seventh son of a seventh son myth. Such breaches of Mendel’s law typify tDNA-dependent conditions. Such manic depressives as Winston Churchill reviewing insights gained while high when low, make valuable contributions to society. 

tDNAs transporting protons combine them with N₂, O₂ and NO and NAD component nicotinamide’s amide or hydroxyl group. Biological N₂ fixation is more efficient than the Haber process [21]. O2 release, equivalent to photolyzing H₂O, oxygenates the atmosphere [22], enabling symbiosis between fauna and flora. NO release controls vasodilation. HCN and CO prevent it.

6.       Growth

     Feed-back amplifies metabolic disturbances, notifying all body cells:

·         Nerve signals to the hypothalamus release 3,900 hormone molecules

·         Anterior pituitary incorporates copper to 3,900 hormone molecules

·         Endocrine glands synthesize 3,900 hormone molecules

     All the body’s 3,900³ ≈ 6×10¹⁰ cells are stimulated.

Biotechnologists failing to acknowledge tDNAs roles and creating ‘unnatural’ ones, could realize Alexander Pope’s A little knowledge is a dangerous thing and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein prophecies.

The hepatic portal vein delivers amino acids to the liver, inter-converting them ensures the brain receives a balanced mixture to maintain sanity [23], (Figure 10). 

Stem cells lack hooks, gametes and leukocytes have one, spirogyra filaments two, sponge sheets three and bi-layered worms four. Five hooks suffice to form all body tissues and limit their growth. One-hook leukocytes digesting cells sporting a 6th hook is the natural defense against cancers and tumors. 

At cell division, tDNAs feeding from blastula and gastrula are nutrient starved and overheat. Guanyl-cyclase replaces adenyl-cyclase, synthesizing hook proteins, they bind daughter cells together, determining tissue morphology.

A mathematically gifted reader proving my Five hook theorem, ‘Five connections suffice to form all nature’s beauty’, 3D equivalent of the 2D Four- color mapping theorem, could persuade innovators to exercise caution. 

Cu supplements control growth disorders, e.g. acromegaly, dwarfism and gigantism. Cu bracelets might ameliorate arthritis [24]. Cu accumulating in the eyes causes Wilson’s disease. The Cu in coil contraceptives starves sperm of glucose, preventing them reaching their target. 

7.       Rigidity 

Osteoclasts and osteoblasts maintain bones and teeth, using SiF ⁼ as carrier to transfer calcium phosphate, [fluor-]apatite, Ca₁₀(PO₄)6(OH/F)₂ through membranes. The stability of fluorspar, CaF₂ or Blue John illustrates calcium’s affinity for fluorine. 

Vitamin D3 stores ~265 nm UV sunlight [25] with the same energy as Si~ F bonds [26]. Retinal transfers it as solitons [27], assembling SiF₆⁼, (Figure 13).

SiO₂ + 6F- + 4H⁺ + UV light → SiF₆⁼ + 2H₂O, a pH-sensitive reaction. 

Coevolved thyroid and parathyroid glands both incorporate halides to hormones. Continuous parathyroid hormone, PTH secretion prevents toxic F^- accumulation. Acidity at menopause or kidney failure promoting SiF₆⁼ synthesis causes osteoporosis.

For plant life, phosphate is scarce, they use the same route to synthesize their SiO₂ hard parts, preserved in diatomaceous earth. SOx/NOx entering via the stomata of Scandinavian forest trees caused leaf-fall. Liming soil was ineffective, reducing interest in diesel pollution control [28].

SOx/NOx air pollution acidifying the nasal fossa can cause inappropriate SiF₆⁼ synthesis. Passed via olfactory nerves to the brain, it deposits alumino-silicate plaques and releases F-. Retained by the blood-brain barrier, it inhibits Krebs cycle killing neurons and causes protein misfolding, creating β-amyloid and τ-protein tangles, explaining all Alzheimer Disease symptoms [29]. Mutant tRNAs misinterpreting mRNA sequences explain prion disease tangles [30]. 

Fluorinated anesthetics, typically administered for hip replacement, bring symptomatic relief four days later [31]. Simultaneous with renal AlF₆^≡ excretion [32], the brain is cleared of F^-. Controlling air pollution or designing pharmaceuticals to introduce F^- to the brain could prevent dementia.

Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, fluoridation replacing F^- with OH^- apatite counters childhood tooth decay. Tea drinking provides sufficient F^-, excess causes tooth mottling. 

8.       Assimilation 

Pavlov’s dog enjoyed sweet diabetic’s urine [33], suggesting anticipating food promotes insulin secretion. Zn++ is carrier for glucose, its transport maintains steady sugar concentrations in blood, xylem and phloem, controlling carbohydrate metabolism; defects cause diabetes. Zn accumulating in diabetics’ vitreous

humor causes glaucoma and poor glucose 

Pancreatic β-cells distribute Zn⁺⁺ in insulin and α-cell glucagon recycles it. Vitamin C derivative 2-keto-Lgulonate [34] takes Zn⁺⁺ where insulin can’t reach, Figure14. Zn⁺⁺ blocks rhinovirus entry via nasal cell tDNAs, explaining how the vitamin C supplements Pauling promoted [35] prevented cold and flu infection.

All carbohydrate metabolism inter-mediates exhibit the triangle of sweetness binding Zn⁺⁺. In ancient mariners, Zn deficiency prevented OH-P incorporation to collagen causing scurvy until the introduction of limes prevented it. The ZnS in Calamine™ lotion works the same way.

Breathing air triggers adult replacing foetal haemoglobin. Zn in colostrum conjugates the bilirubin released to glucose. Failure can cause neonatal jaundice [35] and brain seizures. The Zn in midwives’ pewter spoons was effective before exposure to blue light was introduced. 

Zn regulates our appetites for food and sex, that in oysters encourages snacking while caviar increases libido. Zn supplements control anorexia nervosa and bulimia [36]. They might prevent obesity and other eating disorders. The liver converts glucose to glycogen, it’s stored as fat in adipose tissue as starch in leaves. 

Alcohol and barbiturates divert Zn, cofactor for alcohol dehydrogenase, to the liver to de-toxify them. Reduced brain Zn prevents glucose metabolism, explaining inebriation. Attention to Zn nutrition might manage alcoholism.

Be, Pb & In mimic Zn. Victorians called Be glucinium for its sweet taste, using it as poison. Romans died after using lead acetate as a sweetener. In, diagonally related to Zn in the periodic table, may incorporate divalent ions to endocrine hormones. 

9.       Reproduction 

Pineal hormones serotonin and melatonin form 6-member rings around Ag⁺ resembling those catecholamines form around K+. Red haemoglobin, Fe porphyrin, carries O₂ in erythrocytes. Green chlorophyll, Mg porphyrin, gathers light for photosynthesis in leaves. Pink Ag porphyrin [37] transfers the UV sunlight energy vitamin D3 absorbs. 

The high charge of Pi prevents is passage through a tDNA, Energy from Ag. porphyrin passes via retinal’s conjugated -/= bonds, esterifying Pi to PPi. It’s complexed with arginine for transport, (Figure 13). Ag deficiency allows cancers to develop, anti-cancer drugs mimic the PPi-Arg₂ complex and afford the 28H, 20C, 8N, 12O and 2P for DNA synthesis at cell division. 

Ag repairs tissues, regulates sleep. Commonly used in medicine before antibiotics were introduced [38], its reinstatement could be beneficial. Ag-colloid proved effective against cancers in animal trials; experts dismiss it as a quack remedy. Phosphate’s roles in energetics, DNA synthesis and skeleton maintenance are managed separately. 

10.   Water Pumping 

Contrary to Mitchell’s assumption when proposing his chemiosmotic hypothesis [39], water cannot diffuse through membranes. The exchange of 3Na⁺ for 2K⁺ maintains membrane potential, preventing it. Mevalonate, residue of saturated fat breakdown, is named after Valerian [40], aka all heal. A tDNA exchanges mevalonate-5-phosphate for mevalonolactone-5-phosphate transporting H₂O, expending much energy. 

Oxytocin and vasopressin distribute Se from the posterior pituitary in their S ~ Se bonds. At target tissues, vitamin E, α-tocopherol delivers energy as solitons, oxidising Se to selenite. SeO ⁼ exchanges Mn⁺⁺ for Ca⁺⁺. (manganese and magnesium were named after Magnesia in Greece). Man gains ease is mnemonic for Manganese controls blood pressure. Mn is cofactor for enzymes converting surplus mevalonate to cholesterol [41], (Figure 16). 

Phosphomevalonate resembles a crab’s claw, when it closes to form a lactone ring, it excludes a water molecule. Shuttling back and forth through a transport DNA pore, it transports water. A selenium dependent feedback mechanism converts surplus mevalonate to cholesterol, feedstock for steroid hormones. 

(Figure 17): shows blood pressure controls. In industrial societies, Se deficiency is the prime cause of morbidity. It causes high blood pressure, heart attacks, strokes, pre-eclampsia and cancers of breast, bowel, prostate and cervix. It explains most Western deaths.

Pandemic Se deficiency arises from:

·                     Water purification [42].

·                     Crops grown in Se-poor soils.

·                     High temperature food preparation and preservation [49].

·                     Junk food consumption.

·                     Se-rich foods are expensive. 

Limes for scurvy, iodine for goiter, cod liver oil for rickets and fluoridation for dental caries are precedents for selenium supplementation, it’s not mass medication. Enough Se would prevent heart attacks and common cancers.

Selenium supplements would prevent them.

Sedimentary rocks preserve remnants of early Se-dependent life, plate tectonic subduction, wandering continents, introduced them to volcanic magma. Hard water percolating through limestone, other sedimentary and igneous rocks containing Se, is preferable to soft water. 

Surface geology determining tap-water selenium consistently correlates with breast cancer incidence [44] affords evidence. European royalty’s rich diet explains their longevity. 

Animal husbandry [45] yields best evidence: 

·                     S in superphosphate fertilizer competing with Se causes swayback in sheep.

·                     Se supplements prevent hypertension in pregnant cattle.

·                     Se supplements protect pigs from heart failure en route to market 

11.   Competition 

Pasteur demonstrated life doesn’t arise spontaneously. Miller and Urey simulating lightning in a methane and ammonia atmosphere synthesized amino-acids. Coacervates and clay surfaces enable catalysis but don’t determine life’s chemistry. Advocates of hydrothermal vents emphasize RNA catalysis, invoking ribosomes arising spontaneously. 

DNA's more stable than RNA [47], making its precedence more likely and discrediting the RNA world [48] approach. Hoyle’s Panspermia [49] ignores the problem ice XIc resolves. My model is unique in emphasizing substrate concentration. The minion DNA/protein complex elucidates metabolism. It accounts for chirality, time, uncertainty and brain function, making verifiable predictions and affording hope for life’s future.

12.   Life Arising Elsewhere 

Three criteria constrain life arising elsewhere:

·                     A source of laser energy matching critical chemical bonds

·                     Dynamic equilibrium affording feed stocks

·                     Efficient photochemical energy coupling.

Redirecting funds from rocketry and telescopes for SETI to humanitarian causes could brighten life's future. 

13.   Biological Clocks 

Light passes thrice around a minion coil in: 

Figure 1: Manometers measured temperature & pressure, a pump extracted N₂. Water used to seal the rubber bung leaked in & boiling N₂ carried super-cooled H₂O vapour, it crystallised on the SiO₂ bulb. A phase transition accommodating H₂O molecules’ irregular shape had distorted it. A Cu wire conducted heat, keeping the N₂ boiling. Plotting pressure v temperature showed hysteresis. Proton-ordered ice Ic resembles diamond. Snow falling in polar liquid N₂ during a primordial ice age made it boil, ice XIc crystallised at its surface. Lightning created nucleotides in ocean surfaces. Fluctuating temperatures released latent energy as λ ~4µ infrared laser light, ice- light. Polarized by reflection in cloud and surface ice, their photo- phosphorylation created a DNA noodle soup.

Figure 2: Transfer RNA and ice-light driven pump mechanism.

 Figure 3: DNA uncoils and binds to β-sheet hairpin proteins. The coiled abacus makes 1 in 63⁹ wrap-around counting ‘errors’ and follows the Dekatrons™ logic of Geiger counters.

Figure 4: H-bond chains oscillate, aligned H₂O molecules in ice Ic, phase transition accommodating their irregular tetrahedral shape releases latent energy as ~4µ laser light, 2D representation. Ice XIc crystallizing on Earth’s poles during a primordial ice-age released ~4µ laser light. It photo-phosphorylated nucleotides in tropical waters, creating a DNA noodle soup.

Figure 5: Periodic table indicating essential, toxic and un-used elements in green, blue and yellow.

Figure 6: Biological subcomponents constitute resonant cavities, they mediate mechano-chemical coupling, accounting for: sarcomeres of striated muscle contracting, chromosome separation at cell division, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and the cytochrome chain.

Figure 7: Large sodium hydrate, catecholamine complexes with sodium and potassium in mono and stereo.

Figure 8: I⁺ released from thyroxine, I⁺[O₂.H₂O]₂ complex, H⁺ transport mediates N₂-fixation, O₂ release, NO activation, HCN and CO toxicity.

Figure 10: Liver inter-converts amino acids.

Figure 11: Guanyl- replaces adenyl-cyclase, synthesizing hook proteins.

Figure 12: Hook proteins determine tissue morphology.

Figure 13: Energy from vitamin D3 synthesizes silicon hexafluoride, carrier for apatite.

Figure 14: Vitamin C metabolite 2-keto-Lgulonate and glucose bind Zn.

Figure 15: Serotonin transports silver, anti-cancer drugs mimic the PPi-Arg2 complex.

Figure 16: Energy from glutathione synthesizes selenite, exchanging manganese for calcium.

Figure 17: Exchanging P-mevalonate for P-mevalonolactone transports water, surplus mevalonate is converted to cholesterol, Of the eight controls on blood pressure, selenium deficiency is most significant.

Figure 18: Plane combinations reminiscent of Plato’s perfect solids, Carbon-nitrogen cycle, Tyger equation.

Table 1: Qualities associated with minion coils

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